All fact sheets · The Strata Memo
Nickel
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Chemical details
- State at room conditions
- Solid
- Melting point
- 1,728 K (1,455 °C)
- Boiling point
- 3,186 K (2,913 °C)
- Density
- 8.912 g/cm³
- Common oxidation states
- +3, +2
- Electronegativity (Pauling)
- 1.91
- Atomic radius
- 163 pm
- First ionization energy
- 7.640 eV
- Discovered
- 1751
Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine, PubChem, Periodic Table of Elements (element Nickel) (current at retrieval)
USGS 2025 critical mineral. Figures: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (public domain); sources are in the source register.
Where it is made: six stages
bottleneck made in the U.S. partly no U.S. activity no source yet
Where the sites are
Refiningring = place only known to county or district
Most pins mark the centre of the place the source names for the site (a town, county or district), not the exact mine; U.S. sites from MSHA use MSHA's own coordinates for the mine. Hover for operator and outputs. Map outlines: Natural Earth (public domain); place lookup: © OpenStreetMap contributors (ODbL).
4 of 5 sites have no plottable place and are not pinned.
Overview
How much does the U.S. import?
of U.S. nickel use was met by imports in 2025 (USGS net import reliance).
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
Did you know?
In 1751 Axel Cronstedt expected copper from the ore kupfernickel, got a white metal instead, and named it nickel after the mineral.
Checked against two independent sources. Verified 2026-10-26.
Sources: Wikipedia · WebElements (University of Sheffield) (Wikipedia text is CC BY-SA)
How concentrated is supply?
79% of world production comes from three countries (Indonesia, Philippines, Russia). Highly concentrated.
Thirds of the bar: under 33%, 33 to 65%, 66% and over. Our own rule of thumb, not a USGS rating.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
Supply
Who has it, and who digs it?
Where it is produced, 2025
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| Indonesia | 67% |
| Philippines | 7% |
| Russia | 5% |
| Canada | 4% |
| New Caledonia | 4% |
| China | 3% |
Where the reserves are
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| Indonesia | 48% |
| Australia | 19% |
| Brazil | 12% |
| Russia | 6% |
| New Caledonia | 5% |
| Philippines | 4% |
Share of the world total as printed by USGS (rounded). Production and reserves are different things: reserves are what is economic to mine. Hover or focus a bar for its value, or switch to the table view.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
Where U.S. imports come from
Choose a data set, then a view. A country keeps the same color in every chart on this page. Grey means other countries, or a country beyond the seven colors (always labeled). Hover or focus a mark for its value, or use the table view.
- Canada44%
- Norway11%
- Australia8%
- Brazil7%
- Other countries30%
| Country | Share of U.S. imports | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 44% | 44.0% |
| Norway | 11% | 11.0% |
| Australia | 8% | 8.0% |
| Brazil | 7% | 7.0% |
| Other countries | 30% | 30.0% |
Average share of U.S. imports of primary nickel, 2021–24, as printed by USGS (rounded, so shares may not sum to 100). Other countries are USGS's own grouping.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
- Canada41%
- Mexico27%
- United Kingdom9%
- Other countries23%
| Country | Share of U.S. imports | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 41% | 41.0% |
| Mexico | 27% | 27.0% |
| United Kingdom | 9% | 9.0% |
| Other countries | 23% | 23.0% |
Average share of U.S. imports of nickel-containing scrap, including nickel content of stainless-steel scrap, 2021–24, as printed by USGS (rounded, so shares may not sum to 100). Other countries are USGS's own grouping.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
- Sweden69% · $605K
- China14% · $123K
- Italy9% · $78K
- Belgium5% · $42K
- Canada3% · $23K
- Mexico1% · $8K
| Country | U.S. imports, 2025 | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Sweden | 69% · $605K | 68.8% |
| China | 14% · $123K | 14.0% |
| Italy | 9% · $78K | 8.9% |
| Belgium | 5% · $42K | 4.8% |
| Canada | 3% · $23K | 2.6% |
| Mexico | 1% · $8K | 0.9% |
U.S. general imports (customs value) in calendar 2025 under HS 2604; countries beyond the top six are grouped. The code can include goods beyond this mineral. The Shift view compares each country's share of 2025 with its share of Jan to Aug 2026 (shares of each period's total).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports by HS code and country (calendar 2025; Jan to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
- Canada92% · $21.4M
- Indonesia5% · $1.2M
- Japan3% · $613K
- Korea, South0% · $115K
- Italy0% · $10K
- Peru0% · $4K
| Country | U.S. imports, 2025 | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 92% · $21.4M | 91.6% |
| Indonesia | 5% · $1.2M | 5.3% |
| Japan | 3% · $613K | 2.6% |
| Korea, South | 0% · $115K | 0.5% |
| Italy | 0% · $10K | 0.0% |
| Peru | 0% · $4K | 0.0% |
U.S. general imports (customs value) in calendar 2025 under HS 7501; countries beyond the top six are grouped. The code can include goods beyond this mineral. The Shift view compares each country's share of 2025 with its share of Jan to Aug 2026 (shares of each period's total).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports by HS code and country (calendar 2025; Jan to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
- Canada57% · $784.0M
- Norway16% · $227.0M
- United Kingdom8% · $109.6M
- South Africa5% · $74.1M
- Japan4% · $53.7M
- Finland3% · $42.6M
- All other countries6% · $87.4M
| Country | U.S. imports, 2025 | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 57% · $784.0M | 56.9% |
| Norway | 16% · $227.0M | 16.5% |
| United Kingdom | 8% · $109.6M | 8.0% |
| South Africa | 5% · $74.1M | 5.4% |
| Japan | 4% · $53.7M | 3.9% |
| Finland | 3% · $42.6M | 3.1% |
| All other countries | 6% · $87.4M | 6.3% |
U.S. general imports (customs value) in calendar 2025 under HS 7502; countries beyond the top six are grouped. The code can include goods beyond this mineral. The Shift view compares each country's share of 2025 with its share of Jan to Aug 2026 (shares of each period's total).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports by HS code and country (calendar 2025; Jan to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
U.S. supply mix
metric tons, 2021 to 2025
Imports are before exports, so the stack is not the same as U.S. consumption.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
Price
Price, average annual, London Metal Exchange (LME), cash: Dollars per metric ton
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)
Trade and tariffs
Trade codes and tariffs
| HTS code | What it covers | Normal rate | Column 2 rate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2604 | Nickel ores and concentrates | Free | Free |
| 7501 | Nickel mattes, nickel oxide sinters and other intermediate products of nickel metallurgy | Free | Free |
| 7502 | Unwrought nickel | Free * | 6.6¢/kg |
Rates from the U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule (USITC, saved 2026-10-26). The normal rate is column 1 general; column 2 applies to countries without normal trade relations. A range means different products under the code have different rates. An asterisk means the schedule footnotes point to Chapter 99 additional-duty headings. Section 232, Section 301, emergency tariffs and antidumping or countervailing duties are set in separate notices and are not shown. Look up any code at hts.usitc.gov. These are the main codes for this mineral, not a complete list.
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States, general and column 2 rates (edition current when saved)
U.S. trade by country
U.S. imports in 2025 by source country, code 7502
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| Canada | 57% · $784.0M |
| Norway | 16% · $227.0M |
| United Kingdom | 8% · $109.6M |
| South Africa | 5% · $74.1M |
| Japan | 4% · $53.7M |
| Finland | 3% · $42.6M |
U.S. exports in 2025 by destination, code 7502
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| United Kingdom | 18% · $71.1M |
| Italy | 14% · $55.5M |
| Mexico | 12% · $49.3M |
| France | 12% · $49.1M |
| Germany | 12% · $48.9M |
| Canada | 6% · $25.3M |
2604 Nickel ores and concentrates
Top import sources Sweden 69%, China 14%, Italy 9%
Top export destinations Canada 84%, Malaysia 9%, Thailand 5%
7501 Nickle mattes, nickle oxide sinters, oth int prod
Top import sources Canada 92%, Indonesia 5%, Japan 3%
Top export destinations Canada 65%, Finland 9%, Ireland 8%
7502 Nickle, unwrought
Top import sources Canada 57%, Norway 16%, United Kingdom 8%
Top export destinations United Kingdom 18%, Italy 14%, Mexico 12%
U.S. Census Bureau International Trade API, saved 2026-10-26. Imports are general imports (customs value) and exports are total exports, in U.S. dollars. Duty collected is Census's calculated duty on imports for consumption. Figures cover every 10-digit product under the code, so they can include goods beyond this mineral, and the duty shown is not split into Section 232, Section 301 or antidumping duties. Bars show the largest code for each direction. Group rows such as the EU or OECD are left out so no country is counted twice.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports and exports by HS code and country (calendar 2025, and January to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
Value chain and risk
Value chain: where the bottlenecks are
Mining
The Eagle Mine in Michigan produced about 10,000 tons of nickel in concentrate in 2025. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“the underground Eagle Mine in Michigan produced approximately 10,000 tons of nickel in concentrate”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Ore processing and primary recovery
Eagle Mine in Michigan made nickel in concentrate but it was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas rather than processed in the United States. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“In 2025, the underground Eagle Mine in Michigan produced approximately 10,000 tons of nickel in concentrate, which was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas.”
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (Nickel) (2026)
Refining and separation bottleneck
The Eagle Mine concentrate was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas, the last U.S. primary nickel refinery closed in 1985, and three companies were considering new refinery projects. (no U.S. activity)
The source says
“which was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas.”
“The last U.S. primary nickel refinery, the Port Nickel facility in Louisiana, ceased operations in 1985.”
“Three companies were considering or developing nickel refinery projects in Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
The proclamation says that although the United States mines cobalt and nickel, it lacks the processing capacity to avoid downstream import reliance. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“even where the United States has domestic mining capacity, such as for cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements, the United States lacks the domestic processing capacity to avoid downstream net-import reliance”
Source: White House proclamation, Adjusting Imports of Processed Critical Minerals and Their Derivative Products (Section 232) (2026-01-14)
Metal, alloy and chemical
Primary nickel imports came mainly from Canada (44%), Norway (11%), Australia (8%) and Brazil (7%) in 2021-24. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“Primary nickel: Canada, 44%; Norway, 11%; Australia, 8%; Brazil, 7%; and other, 30%.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Components and end use
Stainless and alloy steel and nickel-containing alloys took more than 85% of U.S. nickel use. (U.S. role not stated)
The source says
“Stainless and alloy steel and nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85% of domestic consumption.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Recycling
Nickel recovered from scrap, mostly stainless-steel scrap, supplied about 60% of U.S. apparent consumption in 2025. (U.S. activity)
The source says
“In 2025, nickel recovered from scrap accounted for approximately 60% of apparent consumption.”
“Most secondary nickel was in the form of nickel content of stainless-steel scrap.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Bottleneck = one country dominates the stage, or the U.S. relies on imports for it, as the quote shows. “No sourced data yet” is not “no problem”.
Who operates it, where, and what comes out
3 operators, 5 named sites.
MiningRefining and separation
Vale Base Metals
3 sites · Canada
Sources
Voisey’s Bay mine and concentrator
“Voisey’s Bay entered production in 2005 as an open pit operation mining nickel, copper, and cobalt.”
“The operation also includes a concentrator that produces nickel-copper-cobalt and copper-concentrates.”
“We operate the world-class Voisey’s Bay nickel deposit and the Long Harbour Processing Plant”
Source: Vale Base Metals, Voisey’s Bay (2026)
Long Harbour Processing Plant
“Newfoundland and Labrador Our integrated mining, milling, and processing operations in Newfoundland and Labrador help provide mineral security to a world in transition.”
“Nickel concentrate from Voisey’s Bay is shipped to the Long Harbour Processing Plant where it is refined into nickel, cobalt and copper metal.”
“We operate the world-class Voisey’s Bay nickel deposit and the Long Harbour Processing Plant”
Source: Vale Base Metals, Long Harbour (2026)
Sudbury Complex (Clarabelle Mill, Copper Cliff Smelter Complex, Copper Cliff Nickel Refinery)
“In Sudbury, we have one open-pit mine and operate five underground mines in addition to a mill, smelter, and refinery.”
“Canada Long Harbour Port Colborne Sudbury Complex Thompson Voisey’s Bay”
“The nickel matte is delivered to the Copper Cliff Nickel Refinery for final processing.”
Source: Vale Base Metals, Sudbury Complex (2026)
PT Weda Bay Nickel
1 site · Indonesia
Sources
Weda Bay Nickel mine
“Weda Bay Nickel (WBN), located in Central and East Halmahera, North Maluku, is a significant nickel mine”
“Tsingshan acquired a 57% stake in Strand Minerals, which owns 90% of Weda Bay Nickel, with Eramet holding the remaining 43%. PT Antam Tbk retains the other 10% ownership in Weda Bay Nickel.”
Source: Eramet Indonesia, Weda Bay Nickel (2025-04-29)
Talon Metals
1 site · United States
Sources
Eagle Mine and Humboldt Mill
“An underground, high-grade nickel and copper mine located in western Marquette County of Michigan’s Upper Peninsula.”
“Eagle Mine is owned and operated by Talon Metals”
Source: Eagle Mine, Eagle Mine (company website) (2026)
Not a complete register: a missing name means not yet sourced. Outputs are products named in the checked quote; the source page may list more.
Geopolitics and supply risk
U.S. policy and funding
Executive Order 14285 (April 2025) called for developing seabed mineral deposits to help secure critical minerals such as nickel.
The source says
“Executive Order 14285, issued in April, called for the development of seabed mineral deposits to help secure supplies of critical minerals such as nickel.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Supply events
The last U.S. primary nickel refinery closed in 1985.
The source says
“The last U.S. primary nickel refinery, the Port Nickel facility in Louisiana, ceased operations in 1985.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Nickel (2026-02)
Summaries are ours, from official pages. Each quoted passage is checked against the saved source page. This is a curated list for the edition shown, not a complete or current record of every measure.
Policy and funding
Federal awards already made
American Battery Technology Company · Department of Energy · $147.6M obligated · started 2025-01-01
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
Revex Technologies, Inc. · Department of Energy · $145M obligated · started 2025-01-15
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
Cirba Solutions, LLC · Department of Energy · $7.4M obligated · started 2023-10-01
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
University of Illinois · Department of Energy · $4M obligated · started 2024-08-01
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
University of California, Davis · Department of Energy · $2.9M obligated · started 2024-01-10
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
The 5 largest of 14 AI-tagged awards from USAspending (last 12 months, found by keyword; some are only loosely about this mineral). See all awards for Nickel.
Source: U.S. Department of the Treasury, Bureau of the Fiscal Service, USAspending.gov: spending by award (contracts and grants, last 12 months) (award start dates per item)
Data tables
Nickel: USGS tables
United States
| Measure | Unit | 2024 | 2025 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Net import reliance as a percentage of total apparent consumption | percent | 43 | 41 |
| Production: Mine | metric tons | 7,490 | 10,000 |
| Production: Refinery, byproduct | metric tons | W | W |
| Imports: Ores and concentrates | metric tons | 12 | 20 |
| Imports: Primary | metric tons | 105,000 | 100,000 |
| Imports: Secondary | metric tons | 40,000 | 45,000 |
| Exports: Ores and concentrates | metric tons | 5,630 | 11,000 |
| Exports: Primary | metric tons | 15,900 | 9,800 |
| Exports: Secondary | metric tons | 46,900 | 35,200 |
| Consumption: Reported, primary | metric tons | 114,000 | 120,000 |
| Consumption: Reported, secondary, purchased scrap | metric tons | 121,000 | 130,000 |
| Consumption: Apparent, primary | metric tons | 90,300 | 90,000 |
| Consumption: Apparent, total | metric tons | 211,000 | 220,000 |
| Price, average annual, London Metal Exchange (LME), cash: Dollars per metric ton | dollars per metric ton | 16,812 | 15,000 |
| Price, average annual, London Metal Exchange (LME), cash: Dollars per pound | dollars per pound | 7.63 | 6.9 |
| Stocks, yearend: Consumer | metric tons | 25,500 | 25,000 |
World production (metric tons; top 6 of 9, plus other countries)
| Country | 2024 | 2025 | Share |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indonesia | 2,310,000 | 2,600,000 | 67% |
| Philippines | 354,000 | 270,000 | 7% |
| Russia | 205,000 | 200,000 | 5% |
| Canada | 125,000 | 140,000 | 4% |
| New Caledonia | 116,000 | 140,000 | 4% |
| China | 115,000 | 120,000 | 3% |
| Other countries | 308,000 | 290,000 | 7% |
World total 2025: 3,900,000 metric tons (as printed by USGS, rounded).
World reserves (metric tons; top 6 of 9, plus other countries)
| Country | 2025 |
|---|---|
| Indonesia | 62,000,000 |
| Australia | 25,000,000 |
| Brazil | 16,000,000 |
| Russia | 8,300,000 |
| New Caledonia | 7,100,000 |
| Philippines | 4,800,000 |
| Other countries | >9,100,000 |
U.S. import sources: Primary nickel (percent of imports, 2021–24)
| Country | Share (%) |
|---|---|
| Canada | 44 |
| Norway | 11 |
| Australia | 8 |
| Brazil | 7 |
| Other countries | 30 |
U.S. import sources: Nickel-containing scrap, including nickel content of stainless-steel scrap (percent of imports, 2021–24)
| Country | Share (%) |
|---|---|
| Canada | 41 |
| Mexico | 27 |
| United Kingdom | 9 |
| Other countries | 23 |
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Nickel (February 2026)